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Ann Thorac Surg 2001;72:1430-1432
© 2001 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons

Key references

Esophageal adenocarcinoma

Jeffrey A. Hagen, MDa, Tom R. DeMeester, MDb

a Section of Thoracic/Foregut Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
b Department of Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

Address reprint requests to Dr Hagen, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, 1441 Eastlake Ave, Suite 4612, Los Angeles, CA 90033-4612
e-mail: hagen{at}hsc.usc.edu

Basic science

  1. Pitot H.C. The molecular biology of carcinogenesis. Cancer 1993;72(Suppl):962-970.[Medline]
  2. Fein M., Peters J.H., Chandrasoma P., et al. Duodenoesophageal reflux induces esophageal adenocarcinoma without exogenous carcinogen. J Gastrointest Surg 1998;2:260-268.[Medline]
  3. Ireland A.P., Peters J.H., Smyrk T.C., et al. Gastric juice protects against the development of esophageal adenocarcinoma in the rat. Ann Surg 1996;224:358-371.[Medline]
  4. Kawakami K., Brabender J., Lord R.V., et al. Hypermethylated APC DNA in plasma and prognosis of patients with esophageal adenocarcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1805-1811.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Oberg S., Lord R.V., Peters J.H., et al. Is adenocarcinoma following esophagoduodenostomy without carcinogen in the rat reflux-induced?. J Surg Res 2000;91:111-117.[Medline]
  6. Blot W.J., Devesa S.S., Kneller R.W., Fraumeni J.J. Rising incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. JAMA 1991;265:1287-1289.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Cameron A.J., Zinsmeister A.R., Ballard D.J., Carney J.A. Prevalence of columnar-lined (Barrett’s) esophagus. Comparison of population-based clinical and autopsy findings. Gastroenterology 1990;99:918-922.[Medline]
  8. Pera M., Cameron A.J., Trastek V.F., Carpenter H.A., Zinsmeister A.R. Increasing incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction. Gastroenterology 1993;104:510-513.[Medline]
  9. Spechler S.J., Robbins A.H., Rubins H.B., et al. Adenocarcinoma, and Barrett’s esophagus. An overrated risk?. Gastroenterology 1984;87:927-933.[Medline]
Etiology and pathophysiology

  1. Blot W.J., Fraumeni J.F., Jr Trends in esophageal cancer mortality among US blacks and whites. Am J Public Health 1987;77:296-298.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Chandrasoma P. Definition of histopathologic changes in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Surg Pathol 2000;24:344-351.[Medline]
  3. DeMeester S.R., DeMeester T.R. Columnar mucosa and intestinal metaplasia of the esophagus: fifty years of controversy. Ann Surg 2000;231:303-321.[Medline]
  4. Levi F., Ollyo J.B., La Vecchia C., Boyle P., Monnier P., Savary M. The consumption of tobacco, alcohol and the risk of adenocarcinoma in Barrett’s oesophagus. Int J Cancer 1990;45:852-854.[Medline]
Risk of adenocarcinoma in Barrett’s esophagus

  1. Adler R.H. The lower esophagus lined by columnar epithelium: its association with hiatal hernia, ulcer, stricture and tumor. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1963;45:13-34.
  2. Cameron A.J., Ott B.J., Payne W.S. The incidence of adenocarcinoma in columnar-lined (Barrett’s) esophagus. N Engl J Med 1985;313:857-859.[Abstract]
  3. Katz D., Rothstein R., Schned A., Dunn J., Seaver K., Antonioli D. The development of dysplasia and adenocarcinoma during endoscopic surveillance of Barrett’s esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:536-541.[Medline]
  4. Lagergren J., Bergstrom R., Lindgren A., Nyren O. Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux as a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med 1999;340:825-831.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. McCallum R., Polepalle S., Davenport K., Frierson H., Boyd S. Role of antireflux surgery against dysplasia in Barrett’s esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;100:A121.
  6. Naef A.P., Savary M., Ozzello L. Columnar-lined lower esophagus: an acquired lesion with malignant predisposition. Report on 140 cases of Barrett’s esophagus with 12 adenocarcinomas. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1975;70:826-835.[Abstract]
  7. Sharma P., Morales T.G., Bhattacharyya A., Garewal H.S., Sampliner R.E. Dysplasia in short-segment Barrett’s esophagus: a prospective 3-year follow-up. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:2012-2016.[Medline]
Role of endoscopic surveillance in early detection of adenocarcinoma

  1. Hameeteman W., Tytgat G.N., Houthoff H.J., van den Tweel J.G. Barrett’s esophagus: development of dysplasia and adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterology 1989;96(5 Pt 1):1249-1256.[Medline]
  2. Levine D.S., Haggitt R.C., Blount P.L., Rabinovitch P.S., Rusch V.W., Reid B.J. An endoscopic biopsy protocol can differentiate high-grade dysplasia from early adenocarcinoma in Barrett’s esophagus. Gastroenterology 1993;105:40-50.[Medline]
  3. Peters J.H., Clark G.W., Ireland A.P. Outcome of adenocarcinoma arising in Barrett’s esophagus in endoscopically surveyed and nonsurveyed patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;108:813-822.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Sampliner R.E. Practice guidelines on the diagnosis, surveillance, and therapy of Barrett’s esophagus. The Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:1028-1032.[Medline]
Controversies in staging

  1. Ellis F.H., Jr, Heatley G.J., Krasna M.J., Williamson W.A., Balogh K. Esophagogastrectomy for carcinoma of the esophagus and cardia: a comparison of findings and results after standard resection in three consecutive eight-year intervals with improved staging criteria. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;113:836-848.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Holscher A.H., Bollschweiler E., Bumm R., Bartels H., Hofler H., Siewert J.R. Prognostic factors of resected adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Surgery 1995;118:845-855.[Medline]
  3. Izbicki J.R., Hosch S.B., Pichlmeier U., et al. Prognostic value of immunohistochemically identifiable tumor cells in lymph nodes of patients with completely resected esophageal cancer. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1188-1194.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Korst R.J., Rusch V.W., Venkatraman E., et al. Proposed revision of the staging classification for esophageal cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998;115:660-670.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Roder J.D., Busch R., Stein H.J., Fink U., Siewert J.R. Ratio of invaded to removed lymph nodes as a predictor of survival in squamous cell carcinoma of the oesophagus. Br J Surg 1994;81:410-413.[Medline]
Preoperative assessment

  1. Block M.I., Patterson G.A., Sundaresan R.S., et al. Improvement in staging of esophageal cancer with the addition of positron emission tomography. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;64:770-777.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Inculet R.I., Keller S.M., Dwyer A., Roth J.A. Evaluation of noninvasive tests for the preoperative staging of carcinoma of the esophagus: a prospective study. Ann Thorac Surg 1985;40:561-565.[Abstract]
  3. Botet J.F., Lightdale C.J., Zauber A.G., Gerdes H., Urmacher C., Brennan M.F. Preoperative staging of esophageal cancer: comparison of endoscopic US and dynamic CT. Radiology 1991;181:419-425.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Hiele M., De Leyn P., Schurmans P., et al. Relation between endoscopic ultrasound findings and outcome of patients with tumors of the esophagus or esophagogastric junction. Gastrointest Endosc 1997;45:381-386.[Medline]
  5. Rice T.W., Boyce G.A., Sivak M.V., Adelstein D.J., Kirby T.J. Esophageal carcinoma: esophageal ultrasound assessment of preoperative chemotherapy. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;53:972-977.[Abstract]
  6. Luketich J.D., Schauer P., Landreneau R., et al. Minimally invasive surgical staging is superior to endoscopic ultrasound in detecting lymph node metastases in esophageal cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;114:817-823.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Treatment: transhiatal esophagectomy

  1. Finley R.J., Inculet R.I. The results of esophagogastrectomy without thoracotomy for adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction. Ann Surg 1989;210:535-543.[Medline]
  2. Goldfaden D., Orringer M.B., Appelman H.D., Kalish R. Adenocarcinoma of the distal esophagus and gastric cardia. Comparison of results of transhiatal esophagectomy and thoracoabdominal esophagogastrectomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1986;91:242-247.[Abstract]
  3. Orringer M.B. Transhiatal esophagectomy without thoracotomy for carcinoma of the thoracic esophagus. Ann Surg 1984;200:282-288.[Medline]
Transthoracic (Ivor-Lewis) resections

  1. Lewis I. The surgical treatment of carcinoma of the esophagus with special reference to a new operation for growths of the middle third. Br J Surg 1946;34:18-31.
  2. Mathisen D.J., Grillo H.C., Wilkins E.W., Jr, Moncure A.C., Hilgenberg A.D. Transthoracic esophagectomy: a safe approach to carcinoma of the esophagus. Ann Thorac Surg 1988;45:137-143.[Abstract]
  3. Shahian D.M., Neptune W.B., Ellis F.H., Jr, Watkins E., Jr Transthoracic versus extrathoracic esophagectomy: mortality, morbidity, and long-term survival. Ann Thorac Surg 1986;41:237-246.[Abstract]
Two-field en bloc resections

  1. Akiyama H., Miyazono H., Tsurumaru M., Hashimoto C., Kawamura T. Thoracoabdominal approach for carcinoma of the cardia of the stomach. Am J Surg 1979;137:345-349.[Medline]
  2. Altorki N.K., Girardi L., Skinner D.B. En bloc esophagectomy improves survival for stage III esophageal cancer. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;114:948-956.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Hagen J.A., Peters J.H., DeMeester T.R. Superiority of extended en bloc esophagogastrectomy for carcinoma of the lower esophagus and cardia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993;106:850-859.[Abstract]
  4. Nigro J.J., DeMeester S.R., Hagen J.A., et al. Node status in transmural esophageal adenocarcinoma and outcome after en bloc esophagectomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999;117:960-968.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Skinner D.B. En bloc resection for neoplasms of the esophagus and cardia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1983;85:59-71.[Abstract]
Three-field en bloc resections

  1. Akiyama H., Tsurumaru M., Udagawa H., Kajiyawa Y. Radical lymph node dissection for cancer of the thoracic esophagus. Ann Surg 1994;220:364-373.[Medline]
  2. Altorki N.K., Skinner D.B. Occult cervical nodal metastasis in esophageal cancer: preliminary results of three-field lymphadenectomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;113:540-544.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Fujita H., Kakegawa T., Yamana H., et al. Mortality and morbidity rates, postoperative course, quality of life, and prognosis after extended radical lymphadenectomy for esophageal cancer. Comparison of three-field lymphadenectomy with two-field lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg 1995;222:654-662.[Medline]
Neoadjuvant therapy

  1. Bhansali M.S., Patil P.K., Badwe R.A., Havaldar R., Desai P.B. Historical control bias: adjuvant chemotherapy in esophageal cancer. Dis Esophagus 1997;10:51-54.[Medline]
  2. Bhansali M.S., Vaidya J.S., Bhatt R.G., Patil P.K., Badwe R.A., Desai P.B. Chemotherapy for carcinoma of the esophagus: a comparison of evidence from meta-analyses of randomized trials and of historical control studies. Ann Oncol 1996;7:355-359.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Kelsen D.P., Ginsberg R., Pajak T.F., et al. Chemotherapy followed by surgery compared with surgery alone for localized esophageal cancer. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1979-1984.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Roth J.A., Ajani J.A., Rich T.A. Multidisciplinary therapy for esophageal cancer. Adv Surg 1990;23:239-260.[Medline]
  5. Urba S.G., Orringer M.B., Turrisi A., Iannettoni M., Forastiere A., Strawderman M. Randomized trial of preoperative chemoradiation versus surgery alone in patients with locoregional esophageal carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2001;19:305-313.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Walsh T.N., Noonan N., Hollywood D., et al. A comparison of multimodal therapy and surgery for esophageal adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med 1996;335:462-467.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Early esophageal cancer: diagnosis

  1. Rice T.W., Zuccaro G., Adelstein D.J., Rybicki L.A., Blackstone E.H., Goldblum J.R. Esophageal carcinoma: depth of tumor invasion is predictive of regional lymph node status. Ann Thorac Surg 1998;65:787-792.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Korst R.J., Altorki N.K. Extent of resection and lymphadenectomy in early Barrett’s cancer. Dis Esophagus 1997;10:172-178.[Medline]
  3. Nigro J.J., Hagen J.A., DeMeester T.R., et al. Occult esophageal adenocarcinoma: extent of disease and implications for effective therapy. Ann Surg 1999;230:433-440.[Medline]
  4. Van Sandick J.W., van Lanschot J.J., ten Kate F.J., et al. Pathology of early invasive adenocarcinoma of the esophagus or esophagogastric junction: implications for therapeutic decision making. Cancer 2000;88:2429-2437.[Medline]
Surgical therapy

  1. Akiyama H., Tsurumaru M., Ono Y., Udagawa H., Kajiyama Y. Esophagectomy without thoracotomy with vagal preservation. J Am Coll Surg 1994;178:83-85.[Medline]
  2. Nigro J.J., Hagen J.A., DeMeester T.R., et al. Prevalence and location of nodal metastases in distal esophageal adenocarcinoma confined to the wall: implications for therapy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999;117:16-25.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Sabik J.F., Rice T.W., Goldblum J.R., et al. Superficial esophageal carcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:896-901.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Photodynamic therapy

  1. Overholt B.F., Panjehpour M., Haydek J.M. Photodynamic therapy for Barrett’s esophagus: follow-up in 100 patients. Gastrointest Endosc 1999;49:1-7.[Medline]
  2. Sibille A., Lambert R., Souquet J.C., Sabben G., Descos F. Long-term survival after photodynamic therapy for esophageal cancer. Gastroenterology 1995;108:337-344.[Medline]
  3. Salo J.A., Salminen J.T., Kiviluoto T.A., et al. Treatment of Barrett’s esophagus by endoscopic laser ablation and antireflux surgery. Ann Surg 1998;227:40-44.[Medline]
  4. Sampliner R.E., Jaffe P. Malignant degeneration of Barrett’s esophagus: the role of laser ablation and photodynamic therapy. Dis Esophagus 1995;8:104-108.
Endoscopic mucosal resection

  1. Harada M., Nagashima R., Takeda H., Takahashi T. Endoscopic resection of adenocarcinoma arising in a tongue of Barrett’s esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc 2000;52:427-429.[Medline]
  2. Nijhawan P.K., Wang K.K. Endoscopic mucosal resection for lesions with endoscopic features suggestive of malignancy and high-grade dysplasia within Barrett’s esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc 2000;52:328-332.[Medline]
  3. Takeshita K., Tani M., Inoue H., et al. Endoscopic treatment of early oesophageal or gastric cancer. Gut 1997;40:123-127.[Abstract/Free Full Text]




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