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Ann Thorac Surg 2001;71:394-396
© 2001 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons

Key references

Severe respiratory failure

Joseph B. Zwischenberger, MDa,b, Scott K. Alpard, MDa, Akhil Bidani, MDb

a Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
b Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA

Address reprint requests to Dr Zwischenberger, Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd, Galveston, TX 77555–0528
e-mail: jzwische{at}utmb.edu

Definition

  1. Ashbaugh D.G., Bigelow D.B., Petty T.L., Levine B.E. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 1967;2:319-323.[Medline]
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  3. Gattinoni L., Pesenti A., Bombino M., et al. Relationships between lung computed tomographic density, gas exchange, and PEEP in acute respiratory failure. Anesthesiology 1988;69:824-832.[Medline]
  4. Hudson L.D., Milberg J.A., Anardi D., Maunder R.J. Clinical risks for development of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:293-301.[Abstract]
  5. International consensus conferences in intensive care medicine: ventilator-associated lung injury in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:2118-2124.[Free Full Text]
  6. Kolobow T., Gattinoni L., Tomlinson T., Pierce J.E. An alternative to breathing. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1978;75:261-266.[Abstract]
  7. Meade M.O., Cook D.J., Kernerman P., Bernard G. How to use articles about harm: the relationship between high tidal volumes, ventilating pressures, and ventilator induced lung injury. Crit Care Med 1997;25:1915-1922.[Medline]
  8. Milberg J.A., Davis D.R., Steinberg K.P., Hudson L.D. Improved survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983–1993. JAMA 1995;273:306-309.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Murray J.F., Matthay M.A., Luce J.M., Flick M.R. An expanded definition of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:720-723.[Medline]
Pathophysiology

  1. Croce M.A., Fabian T.C., Davis K.A., Gavin T.J. Early and late acute respiratory distress syndrome: two distinct clinical entities. J Trauma 1999;46:361-368.[Medline]
  2. Dreyfuss D., Soler P., Basset G., Saumon G. High inflation pressure pulmonary edema. Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;137:1159-1164.[Medline]
  3. Gammon R.B., Shin M.S., Groves R.H., Jr, Hardin J.M., Hsu C., Buchalter S.E. Clinical risk factors for pulmonary barotrauma: a multivariate analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:1235-1240.[Abstract]
  4. Gattinoni L., D’Andrea L., Pelosi P., Vitale G., Pesenti A., Fumagalli R. Regional effects and mechanism of positive end-expiratory pressure in early adult respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 1993;269:2122-2127.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Lamy M., Fallat R.J., Koeniger E., et al. Pathologic features and mechanisms of hypoxemia in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976;114:267-284.[Medline]
  6. Meduri G.U., Kohler G., Headley S., Tolley E., Stentz F., Postlethwaite A. Inflammatory cytokines in the BAL of patients with ARDS. Persistent elevation over time predicts poor outcome. Chest 1995;108:1303-1314.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Muscedere J.G., Mullen J.B.M., Gan K., Slutsky A.S. Tidal ventilation at low airway pressures can augment lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1327-1334.[Abstract]
  8. Pugin J., Verghese G., Widmer M.C., Matthay M.A. The alveolar space is the site of intense inflammatory and profibrotic reactions in the early phase of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1999;27:304-312.[Medline]
  9. Ranieri V.M., Suter P.M., Tortorella C., et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 1999;282:54-61.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Wright P.E., Bernard G.R. The role of airflow resistance in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:1169-1174.[Medline]
Treatment: mechanical ventilation

  1. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301-1308.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Amato M.B.P., Barbas C.S.V., Medeiros D.M., et al. Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1998;338:347-354.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Brochard L., Roudot-Thoraval F., Roupie E., et al. Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Multicenter Trial Group on Tidal Volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1831-1838.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Brower R.G., Shanholtz C.B., Fessler H.E., et al. Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1492-1498.[Medline]
  5. Cereda M., Foti G., Musch G., Sparacino M.E., Pesenti A. Positive end-expiratory pressure prevents the loss of respiratory compliance during low tidal volume ventilation in acute lung injury patients. Chest 1996;109:480-485.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Gattinoni L., Pelosi P., Crotti S., Valenza F. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional distribution of tidal volume and recruitment in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1807-1814.[Abstract]
  7. Lefevre G.R., Kowalski S.E., Girling L.G., et al. Improved arterial oxygenation after oleic acid lung injury in the pig using a computer-controlled mechanical ventilator. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1567-1572.[Abstract]
  8. Marcy T.W., Marini J.J. Inverse ratio ventilation in ARDS. Rationale and implementation. Chest 1991;100:494-504.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. National Institute of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Network. Available at: http://hedwig.mgh.harvard.edu/ardsnet/nih.html.
  10. Putensen C., Mutz N.J., Putensen-Himmer G., Zinserling J. Spontaneous breathing during ventilatory support improves ventilation-perfusion distributions in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:1241-1248.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Roupie E., Dambrosio M., Servillo G., et al. Titration of tidal volume and induced hypercapnia in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:121-128.[Abstract]
  12. Stewart T.E., Meade M.O., Cook D.J., et al. Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Pressure- and Volume-Limited Ventilation Strategy Group. N Engl J Med 1998;338:355-361.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Suki B., Alencar A.M., Sujeer M.K., et al. Life-support system benefits from noise. Nature 1998;393:127-128.[Medline]
  14. Ullrich R., Lorber C., Roder G., et al. Controlled airway pressure therapy, nitric oxide inhalation, prone position, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) as components of an integrated approach to ARDS. Anesthesiology 1999;91:1577-1586.[Medline]
Noninvasive ventilation

  1. Antonelli M., Conti G., Rocco M., et al. A comparison of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 1998;339:429-435.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Keenan S.P., Kernerman P.D., Cook D.J., Martin C.M., McCormack D., Sibbald W.J. The effect of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation on mortality in patients admitted with acute respiratory failure: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 1997;25:1685-1692.[Medline]
  3. Rocker G.M., Mackenzie M.G., Williams B., Logan P.M. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: successful outcome in patients with acute lung injury/ARDS. Chest 1999;115:173-177.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Permissive hypercapnia

  1. Bidani A., Tzouanakis A.E., Cardenas V.J., Jr, Zwischenberger J.B. Permissive hypercapnia in acute respiratory failure. JAMA 1994;272:957-962.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Hickling K.G., Walsh J., Henderson S., Jackson R. Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: a prospective study. Crit Care Med 1994;22:1568-1578.[Medline]
  3. Richecoeur J., Lu Q., Vieira S.R., et al. Expiratory washout versus optimization of mechanical ventilation during permissive hypercapnia in patients with severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:77-85.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Thorens J.B., Jolliet P., Ritz M., Chevrolet J.C. Effects of rapid permissive hypercapnia on hemodynamics, gas exchange, and oxygen transport and consumption during mechanical ventilation for the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 1996;22:182-192.[Medline]
High-frequency ventilation

  1. Arnold J.H., Hanson J.H., Toro-Figuero L.O., et al. Prospective, randomized comparison of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in pediatric respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 1994;22:1530-1539.[Medline]
  2. Gerstmann D.R., Minton S.D., Stoddard R.A., et al. The Provo multicenter early high-frequency oscillatory ventilation trial: improved pulmonary and clinical outcome in respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatrics 1996;98:1044-1057.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. HIFI Study Group. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation compared with conventional mechanical ventilation in the treatment of respiratory failure in preterm infants. The HIFI Study Group. N Engl J Med 1989;320:88-93.[Abstract]
  4. HiFO Study Group. Randomized study of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in infants with severe respiratory distress syndrome. HiFO Study Group. J Pediatr 1993;122:609-619.[Medline]
  5. Hurst J.M., Branson R.D., Davis K., Jr, Barrette R.R., Adams K.S. Comparison of conventional mechanical ventilation and high-frequency ventilation. A prospective, randomized trial in patients with respiratory failure. Ann Surg 1990;211:486-491.[Medline]
  6. Rettwitz-Volk W., Veldman A., Roth B., et al. A prospective, randomized, multicenter trial of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation compared with conventional ventilation in preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome receiving surfactant. J Pediatr 1998;132:249-254.[Medline]
Prone position ventilation

  1. Chatte G., Sab J.M., Dubois J.M., et al. Prone position in mechanically ventilated patients with acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:473-478.[Abstract]
  2. Pappert D., Rossaint R., Slama K., Gruning T., Falke K.J. Influence of positioning on ventilation-perfusion relationships in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 1994;106:1511-1516.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Stocker R., Neff T., Stein S., Ecknauer E., Trentz E., Russi E. Prone positioning and low-volume pressure-limited ventilation improve survival in patients with severe ARDS. Chest 1997;111:1008-1017.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Intratracheal pulmonary ventilation (ITPV)

  1. Rossi N., Kolobow T., Aprigliano M., Tsuno K., Giacomini M. Intratracheal pulmonary ventilation at low airway pressures in a ventilator-induced model of acute respiratory failure improves lung function and survival. Chest 1998;114:1147-1157.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Pharmacologic therapies

  1. Abraham E., Park Y.C., Covington P., Conrad S.A., Schwartz M. Liposomal prostaglandin E1 in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. Crit Care Med 1996;24:10-15.[Medline]
  2. Bone R.C., Slotman G., Maunder R., et al. Randomized double-blind, multicenter study of prostaglandin E1 in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Prostaglandin E1 Study Group. Chest 1989;96:114-119.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Domenighetti G., Suter P.M., Schaller M.D., Ritz R., Perret C. Treatment with N-acetylcysteine during acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study. J Crit Care 1997;12:177-182.[Medline]
  4. Meduri G.U., Headley A.S., Golden E., et al. Effect of prolonged methylprednisolone therapy in unresolving acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:159-165.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  5. Reising C.A., Chendrasekhar A., Wall P.L., Paradise N.F., Timberlake G.A., Moorman D.W. Continuous dose furosemide as a therapeutic approach to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). J Surg Res 1999;82:56-60.[Medline]
  6. Sinuff T., Cook D.J., Peterson J.C., Fuller H.D. Development, implementation, and evaluation of a ketoconazole practice guideline for ARDS prophylaxis. J Crit Care 1999;14:1-6.[Medline]
Nitric oxide

  1. Dellinger R.P., Zimmerman J.L., Taylor R.W., et al. Effects of inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: results of a randomized phase II trial. Inhaled nitric oxide in ARDS study group. Crit Care Med 1998;26:15-23.[Medline]
  2. Kinsella J.P., Walsh W.F., Bose C.L., et al. Inhaled nitric oxide in premature neonates with severe hypoxaemic respiratory failure: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999;354:1061-1065.[Medline]
  3. Neonatal Inhaled Nitric Oxide Study Group. Inhaled nitric oxide in full-term and nearly full-term infants with hypoxic respiratory failure. The Neonatal Inhaled Nitric Oxide Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997;336:597-604.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Walmrath D., Schneider T., Schermuly R., et al. Direct comparison of inhaled nitric oxide and aerosolized prostacyclin in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:991-996.[Abstract]
Partial liquid ventilation (PLV)

  1. Gauger P.G., Pranikoff T., Schreiner R.J., Moler F.W., Hirschl R.B. Initial experience with partial liquid ventilation in pediatric patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1996;24:16-22.[Medline]
  2. Hirschl R.B., Pranikoff T., Wise C., et al. Initial experience with partial liquid ventilation in adult patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 1996;275:383-389.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Leach C.L., Greenspan J.S., Rubenstein S.D., et al. Partial liquid ventilation with perflubron in premature infants with severe respiratory distress syndrome. The LiquiVent Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;335:761-767.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Surfactant therapy

  1. Anzueto A., Baughman R.P., Guntupalli K.K., et al. Aerosolized surfactant in adults with sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome. Exosurf Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1417-1421.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Lotze A., Mitchell B.R., Bulas D.I., Zola E.M., Shalwitz R.A., Gunkel J.H. Multicenter study of surfactant (beractant) use in the treatment of term infants with severe respiratory failure. Survanta in Term Infants Study Group. J Pediatr 1998;132:40-47.[Medline]
  3. McMillan D., Chernick V., Finer N., et al. Effects of two rescue doses of synthetic surfactant in 344 infants with respiratory distress syndrome weighing 750 to 1249 grams: a double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter Canadian trial. Canadian Exosurf Neonatal Study Group. J Pediatr 1995;126:S90-S98.[Medline]
Extrapulmonary gas exchange: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)

  1. Bartlett R.H., Roloff D.W., Cornell R.G., Andrews A.F., Dillon P.W., Zwischenberger J.B. Extracorporeal circulation in neonatal respiratory failure: a prospective randomized study. Pediatrics 1985;76:479-487.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Bartlett R.H., Roloff D.W., Custer J.R., Younger J.G., Hirschl R.B. Extracorporeal life support: the University of Michigan experience. JAMA 2000;283:904-908.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Clark R.H., Yoder B.A., Sell M.S. Prospective, randomized comparison of high-frequency oscillation and conventional ventilation in candidates for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr 1994;124:447-454.[Medline]
  4. Green T.P., Timmons O.D., Fackler J.C., Moler F.W., Thompson A.E., Sweeney M.F. The impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation on survival in pediatric patients with acute respiratory failure. Pediatric Critical Care Study Group. Crit Care Med 1996;24:323-329.[Medline]
  5. O’Rourke P.P., Crone R.K., Vacanti J.P., et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and conventional medical therapy in neonates with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: a prospective randomized study. Pediatrics 1989;84:957-963.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. UK Collaborative Trial Group. UK collaborative randomized trial of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. UK Collaborative ECMO Trial Group. Lancet 1996;348:75-82.[Medline]
  7. Zwischenberger J.B., Nguyen T.T., Upp J.R., Jr, et al. Complications of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Collective experience from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:838-849.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Intravascular gas exchange (IVOX)

  1. Conrad S.A., Bagley A., Bagley B., Schaap R.N., et al. Major findings from the clinical trials of the intravascular oxygenator. Artif Organs 1994;18:846-863.[Medline]
  2. Zwischenberger J.B., Nguyen T.T., Tao W., et al. IVOX with gradual permissive hypercapnia: a new management technique for respiratory failure. J Surg Res 1994;57:99-105.[Medline]
Extracorporeal CO2 removal (ECCO2R)

  1. Gattinoni L., Pesenti A., Mascheroni D., et al. Low-frequency positive-pressure ventilation with extracorporeal CO2 removal in severe acute respiratory failure. JAMA 1986;256:881-886.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Morris A.H., Wallace C.J., Menlove R.L., et al. Randomized clinical trial of pressure-controlled inverse ratio ventilation and extracorporeal CO2 removal for adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:295-305.[Abstract]
Arteriovenous CO2 removal (AVCO2R)

  1. Alpard S.K., Zwischenberger J.B., Tao W., Deyo D.J., Bidani A. Reduced ventilator pressure and improved P/F ratio during percutaneous arteriovenous carbon dioxide removal (AVCO2R) for severe respiratory failure. Ann Surg 1999;230:215-224.[Medline]
  2. Liebold A., Reng C.M., Philipp A., Pfeifer M., Birnbaum D.E. Pumpless extracorporeal lung assist—experience with the first 20 cases. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2000;17:608-613.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Zwischenberger J.B., Conrad S.A., Alpard S.K., Grier L.R., Bidani A. Percutaneous extracorporeal arteriovenous CO2 removal (AVCO2R) for severe respiratory failure. Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:181-187.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
Total artificial lung

  1. Lynch W., Montoya P., Schreiner R., Iannettoni M., Bartlett R. Hemodynamic effects of a low resistance artificial lung in series with native lungs of sheep: a 24-hour study. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;69:351-356.[Abstract/Free Full Text]




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