HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Add to Personal Folders Download to citation manager Author home page(s): Munetaka Masuda Shigeki Morita Ryuji Tominaga Hisataka Yasui Permission Requests Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Masuda, M. Articles by Yasui, H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Masuda, M. Articles by Yasui, H.

Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:1694-1697
© 1995 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons

---

Original Articles: Cardiovascular

Preoperative Autologous Blood Donations in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery

Department of Cardiovascular Surgery and Blood Transfusion Service, Kyushu University Hospital, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Accepted for publication July 17, 1995.

	Abstract

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Background. Preoperative autologous blood donation is one of the most effective methods to avoid homologous blood transfusion in cardiac operations. However, there have been few reports about the safety and efficacy of autologous blood donation in children.

Methods. Since 1986, we have instituted a blood conservation program including preoperative autologous blood donations in children. Eighty children as young as 3 years old (mean ± SD, 8.6 ± 3.9 years) and weighing as little as 12.3 kg (29.2 ± 14.5 kg) were enrolled in the program, and 735 ± 388 mL of blood was donated during an average of 3.1 ± 1.5 phlebotomies before the operations.

Results. Two episodes of mild vasovagal reaction were observed in 2 patients as a complication of the phlebotomy. Seventy-six percent of the collected blood was stored by cryopreservation; the remaining 24% was preserved by liquid storage. Seventy-eight of these patients (97.5%) underwent operations using cardiopulmonary bypass. Seventy-five patients (94%) were operated on successfully without the need for a homologous blood transfusion. As for the other 5 patients, 2 received only platelet concentrate.

Conclusion. Preoperative autologous blood donation is a safe and effective method to avoid homologous blood transfusion in pediatric cardiac operations.

	Introduction

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Although the risk of transfusion-transmitted diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, hepatitis, and graft versus host disease has been reduced considerably [1, 2], various risks remain and sometimes can be fatal. An increasing risk of postoperative infection also has been reported [3]. As a result, there is increasing interest in blood conservation in cardiovascular surgery to avoid the need for homologous blood transfusions. Intraoperative blood salvage with a cell-saver system and postoperative autotransfusion of shed blood have been reported to be effective [4]. Pharmacologic agents are also useful, such as aprotinin [5] and tranexamic acid [6] to prevent fibrinolysis caused by cardiopulmonary bypass. Although such interventions help to avoid homologous blood transfusion in many adults, the efficacy of these interventions is limited in children, especially when cardiopulmonary bypass is required.

In 1986, we instituted a preoperative autologous blood donation program for cardiovascular surgery, and 665 patients were enrolled in this program until the end of 1994. Among these patients, 80 children (age range, 3 to 15 years) were included. In this article, we introduce our program and its results regarding preoperative autologous blood donation in pediatric cardiac surgery.

	Material and Methods

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation Program
Candidates were allowed to enroll in the program only when they did not demonstrate any severe heart failure or anoxic spells and when their parents gave their consent to the phlebotomy. Blood was collected at the outpatient clinic in Kyushu University Hospital, except for 5 patients whose initial donation was done at the time of cardiac catheterization. At each phlebotomy, 100 to 400 mL of blood (about 10 mL/kg) was collected according to the patients' body weight and hemoglobin level, followed by saline infusion for volume replacement. The collected blood was sent to the Fukuoka Red Cross Blood Center and then was separated into red blood cells and plasma. All plasma was stored as fresh frozen plasma. Two methods were used for the storage of red blood cells, according to the expected storage period. For the liquid storage of red blood cells, we used either a citrate-phosphate-dextrose solution (for up to 3 weeks) or a mannitol-adenine-phosphate solution (developed in Japan as a modification of saline-adenine-glucose-mannitol solution and available since 1991 [7] for long-term storage of red blood cells for up to 6 weeks). Cryopreservation of red blood cells [8] was done when the expected storage period exceeded the limit of liquid storage. The last donation was done 7 days or more before the operation. During the donation period, oral iron supplements were administered daily except for the patients whose hemoglobin level was more than 15 g/dL.

Operative Methods
The operative procedures were done for the following conditions: atrial septal defect with or without partial anomalous pulmonary venous drainage (n = 37); ventricular septal defect (18); endocardial cushion defect (3); complex anomaly (7); coronary artery bypass grafting (1); coarctation of the aorta (2); aortic, mitral, and pulmonary valve annuloplasty (3, 2, 1); and aortic, mitral, and tricuspid valve replacement (3, 2, 1, the last with cryosurgery). The two patients operated on through a left thoracotomy for coarctation of the aorta did not have cardiopulmonary bypass; the rest of the patients were operated on using cardiopulmonary bypass. The bypass circuit with a membrane oxygenator was primed with a crystalloid solution (800 mL for body weight less than 30 kg, 1,100 mL for 30 to 40 kg, and 1,600 mL for more than 40 kg), and cardiopulmonary bypass was initiated after systemic administration of 300 U/kg of heparin. The adequacy of anticoagulation therapy was monitored by measurement of the activated clotting time. Additional heparin was given if the activated clotting time was less than 400 seconds. Myocardial protection was performed with an intermittent infusion of crystalloid cardioplegic solution combined with topical cooling with ice slush. An ultrafilter was inserted in parallel with the bypass circuit for hemoconcentration. Protamine sulfate was administered after termination of cardiopulmonary bypass until the activated clotting time normalized. Tranexamic acid, 50 mg/kg, was also given before bypass, 90 minutes after the initiation of bypass, and at termination of bypass to prevent fibrinolysis [6]. The blood lost intraoperatively and blood remaining in the bypass circuit was collected, washed, and reinfused to the patients using a cell-saving system (Cell-Saver; Haemonetics Corporation, Braintree, MA). We did not start the transfusion of predeposited autologous blood until neutralization of heparin with protamine, unless the hematocrit value during bypass became less than 15%.

All values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The patients were divided into three subgroups according to age (age less than 5, 6 to 10, and more than 11 years old) for further analysis.

	Results

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Eighty children were enrolled in the program and underwent operations between 1986 and 1994. Their ages ranged from 3 to 15 years old (mean ± standard deviation, 8.6 ± 3.9 years), and body weights ranged from 12.3 to 69 kg (29.2 ± 14.5 kg). Thirty-six patients were male and 44 patients were female. They accounted for 54% of all the patients who underwent corrective operations concurrently between the ages of 3 and 15 years. Twenty patients were younger than 5 years, 31 were 6 to 10 years old, and the remaining 29 were all more than 11 years of age. Forty percent of the patients had a body weight of less than 20 kg. All patients were in a New York Heart Association functional class of less than IV before the operations.

At each phlebotomy procedure, an average of 255 ± 96 mL of blood was collected (176 ± 40 mL in patients less than age 5, 217 ± 46 mL for those between 6 and 10, and 356 ± 80 mL in those older than 11). The total stored volume was 735 ± 388 mL for all patients (621 ± 233 mL for those younger than 5, 644 ± 284 mL for those between 6 and 10, and 920 ± 496 mL for those older than 11). Scheduled donations were deferred seven times in 6 patients because of inadequate venous access and once because of anemia. A mild vasovagal reaction was observed two times in 2 patients. The total length of the preoperative donation period was 48 ± 38 days (range, 7 to 140 days), and all patients completed the donation program.

Seventy-six percent of the collected blood was stored by cryopreservation. Cryopreservation was applied more frequently than liquid storage in the younger patients (90% in those less than 5, 83% in those between 6 and 10, and 53% in those older than 11).

The changes in the hemoglobin level are shown in Figure 1. The hemoglobin level was quite stable during the donation period. At the time of consultation (sampling time 1), the level was 13.1 ± 1.7 g/dL (range, 8.9 to 19.7 g/dL). The lowest hemoglobin concentration during the donation period was 12.3 ± 1.5 g/dL (range, 9.5 to 18.6 g/dL; sampling time 2). The hemoglobin level before operation was 12.8 ± 1.3 g/dL (range, 10.2 to 17.6 g/dL; sampling time 3).

View larger version (23K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig 1. . Changes in the mean hemoglobin concentration throughout both the donation and postoperative periods. The upper line represents the highest value; the lower line represents the lowest value. Each number represents different sampling times: 1, at consultation; 2, lowest level during the donation; 3, before the operation; 4, end of the operation; 5, first postoperative day; 6, third postoperative day; 7, seventh postoperative day.

Seventy-five of 80 patients (94%) were free from homologous blood transfusion during their hospital stay. There was no need for a homologous blood transfusion in 100% of those under the age of 5, in 90% of those between 6 and 10, and in 93% of those older than 11. The indications for a homologous blood transfusion were anemia associated with low cardiac output in 3 patients and thrombocytopenia in 2 patients. The latter received only platelet concentrate as a homologous blood transfusion.

	Comment

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Since 1986, we have used a comprehensive blood conservation program, which includes the use of ultrafiltration, a cell-saving system, and tranexamic acid combined with preoperative autologous blood donations. In this program, we extended the indications for preoperative autologous blood donation to small children (3 years old) and the elderly (79 years old). Recently, we have particularly strengthened our efforts for children, because their life expectancy is long and thus they might obtain greater benefit from our program.

Complications from allogenic blood transfusion are still unavoidable and can sometimes be fatal, although there has been a tremendous improvement in the detection of transfusion-mediated diseases. In the Fukuoka area, the rate of blood donors seropositive for anti-human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 is high (3.5%), and the seroconversion rate was still not zero despite the transfusion of screened blood [9]. Virus-mediated diseases such as liver cirrhosis (hepatitis virus C) and T-cell leukemia (human T-lymphotropic virus type 1) often present symptoms long after transfusion. The expression of irregular antibodies induced by allogenic blood transfusion might also be a problem at the time of pregnancy and delivery in women. Thus, children tend to benefit more than adults from the prevention of allogenic blood transfusion.

Preoperative autologous blood donation is one of the most effective methods to avoid homologous blood transfusion. It has become popular primarily for elective operations in adults, but recently its indications have been extended to include high-risk patients such as those undergoing cardiac operations [10–20]. However, to our knowledge, there have been few reports on the safety and efficacy of preoperative autologous blood donation in children, especially in pediatric cardiac surgery. In Silvergleid's study [14], children as young as 8 years old and weighing as little as 27 kg predonated blood for elective orthopedic or plastic surgery operations. In our study, children as young as 3 years old and weighing as little as 12.3 kg were enrolled in the program before elective cardiac operations, including complex cases such as Fontan's procedure, Rastelli's procedure, and various types of valvular operations.

Generally in pediatric cardiac operations, homologous blood transfusion becomes necessary because primary solution of the bypass circuit and cardioplegic solution cause an overhemodilution of the blood, especially in small patients. Kawamura and associates [21] reported that the safe limit of hemodilution is 50% in ventricular septal defect and 40% in tetralogy of Fallot. The efficacy of blood conservation methods such as ultrafiltration, a cell-saving system, and pharmacologic tools is also quite limited to overcome overhemodilution during cardiopulmonary bypass. Autologous red blood cells are helpful to manage overhemodilution during bypass and to correct anemia after bypass. Autologous fresh frozen plasma is also useful to correct coagulopathy after cardiopulmonary bypass, especially in small patients in whom many coagulating factors are lost by the concentration and washing process of the remaining volume of bypass circuit with a cell-saving system. Although our data are retrospective and nonrandomized, 84% of the patients who underwent cardiac operations concurrently between the ages of 3 and 15 years and who did not predonate required homologous blood transfusion, whereas only 6% of the donating patients received transfusions in our hospital.

One of the most difficult problems in autologous blood donation in children is how best to collect and store the blood. We tried to alleviate the patients' fear by applying local anesthetic agents to the puncture site. The Matsuzaki set (BB-2 IP-2; Kawasumi Chemical Inc, Tokyo, Japan) allows a single puncture for both drainage and infusion use, so the patients receive only a single puncture for every phlebotomy. In the case of inadequate venous access, donation should be postponed to another day to let the patients recover psychologically. When the operative indications are sure, an initial donation at the time of catheterization is recommended. For the storage of blood in children, cryopreservation is useful to prevent phlebotomy-induced anemia. Although mannitol-adenine-phosphate solution can extend the liquid preservation period to up to 6 weeks, cryopreservation is required for most patients under 10 years of age. For example, when the patient is 4 years old, a 3- to 4-week interval is necessary for each donation after the removal of a maximum of 200 mL of blood, and so the collected blood should be stored by cryopreservation. Alternatives such as the leapfrog method and switchback method are not recommended because they are cumbersome to perform on children. Supplementation with oral iron and an appropriate interval between donations helped to keep the hemoglobin level stable during the preoperative donation period.

It is difficult to determine the minimum requirement of autologous blood to avoid homologous blood transfusion. There are many factors, such as body weight, hemoglobin level, and operative procedures, that affect the need for blood transfusion. The indications for blood transfusion also play an important role. The oxygen-carrying capacity and cardiac output are important determinants for red blood cell transfusion. A hematocrit value of approximately 20% is acceptable during cardiopulmonary bypass [22]. Although we usually allow a hematocrit value of 20% in adults, a hematocrit value of 15% is also acceptable in simple cases such as atrial septal defect and ventricular septal defect when venous oxygen saturation, as monitored by Oxy-Sat (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, Irvine, CA), is satisfactory. In this series, only 3 patients (3.8%) required a red blood cell component transfusion because of anemia combined with a severely low cardiac output. Based on this high success rate, we consider that the stored red cell volume in our series was satisfactory.

The indication for autologous blood transfusion is quite different from that for homologous blood transfusion. At the initial stage of this program, we tried to store as much autologous blood as possible and transfused all donated blood to the patients, which caused polycythemia in 2 patients. Afterward, we changed our policy and determined that the predonated autologous blood should not be transfused to the patients when the hemoglobin level is greater than 15 g/dL. Thanks to our experience with preoperative autologous blood donation, including nearly 600 adults, we can now accurately predict the blood requirement. As a result, in principle, all donated blood is transfused back to the patients.

Recent advances in pediatric cardiac surgery have helped to lower the age for correction of cardiac anomalies. In our institute, half of the children who undergo cardiac operations are less than 3 years old. This means that less than half of the children qualify for preoperative autologous blood donation. In addition, most of our cases were simple congenital malformations because such malformations tend to have good operative indications in the age range studied, although complex anomalies were also included in our series. Further efforts to lower the indicated age for blood donation are thus required to enable smaller children to benefit from our blood-saving program.

In this study, 2 patients who underwent Rastelli's procedure required only platelet concentrate for the homologous blood transfusion. To improve our program, we are now considering the introduction of preoperative donation of autologous platelets [23].

In conclusion, preoperative autologous blood donation in pediatric cardiac operations is considered to be a safe and effective method to avoid homologous blood transfusion and may also prevent transfusion-transmitted diseases.

	Addendum

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
After we submitted this report, 2 children successfully underwent a cardiac operation using only predonated autologous blood. One patient was a 5-year-old boy, who underwent a Fontan procedure for tricuspid atresia; the other was a 2-year-old boy, who underwent a correction of pulmonary arterial branch stenosis after an arterial switch operation for transposition of the great arteries. The latter patient was the youngest in our series up to now.

	Acknowledgments

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
We wish to thank Mrs Youko Kominami for her technical assistance, Miss Junko Ohkubo for her assistance with the data collection, and Mr Brian Quinn (English Medical Editor, Kyushu University) for comments on the manuscript.

	Footnotes

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 
Address reprint requests to Dr Masuda, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Research Institute of Angiocardiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 812-82, Japan.

	References

Top Footnotes Abstract Introduction Material and Methods Results Comment Addendum Acknowledgments References

 

1. Dodd RY. The risk of transfusion-mediated infection. N Engl J Med 1992;327:419–20.[Medline]
2. Greenbaum BH. Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease: historical perspectives, incidence, and current use of irradiated blood products. J Clin Oncol 1991;9:1889–902.[Abstract]
3. Murphy PJ, Connery C, Hicks GL, Blumberg N. Homologous blood transfusion as a risk factor for postoperative infection after coronary artery bypass graft operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1992;104:1092–9.[Abstract]
4. Scott WJ, Kessler R, Wernly JA. Blood conservation in cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1990;50:843–51.[Abstract]
5. Herynkopf F, Lucchese F, Pereira E, Kalil R, Prates P, Nesralla IA. Aprotinin in children undergoing correction of congenital heart defects: a double-blind pilot study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;103:517–21.
6. Nakashima A, Matsuzaki K, Fukumura F, et al. Tranexamic acid reduces blood loss after cardiopulmonary bypass. ASAIO J 1993;39:M185–9.[Medline]
7. Shimazu M, Fujui H, Mizoguchi H, et al. Multicenter clinical evaluation of red cell concentrates stored up to 6 weeks in MAP, a new additive solution. Jpn J Clin Hematol 1992;33:148–56.
8. Meryman HT, Hornblower M. A method for freezing and washing red blood cells using a high glycerol concentration. Transfusion 1972;12:145–56.[Medline]
9. Inaba S, Sato H, Okochi K, et al. Prevention of transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) through transfusion, by donor screening with antibody to the virus. Transfusion 1989;29:7–11.[Medline]
10. Mann M, Sacks HJ, Goldfinger D. Safety of autologous blood donation prior to elective surgery for a variety of potentially ``high-risk'' patients. Transfusion 1983;23:229–32.[Medline]
11. Kruskall MS, Glazer EE, Leonard SS, et al. Utilization and effectiveness of a hospital autologous preoperative blood donor program. Transfusion 1986;26:335–40.[Medline]
12. Council on Scientific Affairs. Autologous blood transfusions. JAMA 1986;256:2378–80.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
13. Toy PTCY, Strauss RG, Stehling LC, et al. Predeposited autologous blood for elective surgery: a national multicenter study. N Engl J Med 1987;316:517–20.[Abstract]
14. Silvergleid AJ. Safety and effectiveness of predeposit autologous transfusions in preteen and adolescent children. JAMA 1987;257:3403–4.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
15. Love TR, Hendren WG, O'Keefe DD, Daggett WM. Transfusion of predonated autologous blood in elective cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1987;43:508–12.[Abstract]
16. Owings DV, Kruskall MS, Thurer RL, Donovan LM. Autologous blood donations prior to elective cardiac surgery: safety and effect on subsequent blood use. JAMA 1989;262:1963–8.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
17. Britton LW, Eastlund DT, Dziuban SW, et al. Predonated autologous blood use in elective cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1989;47:529–32.[Abstract]
18. Zussa C, Polesel E, Salvador L, et al. Efficacy and safety of predeposit blood autodonation in 500 cases of myocardial revascularization. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1990;24:171–5.[Medline]
19. Dzik WH, Fleisher AG, Ciavarella D, Karlson KJ, Reed GE, Berger RL. Safety and efficacy of autologous blood donation before elective aortic valve operation. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;54:1177–81.[Abstract]
20. Spiess BD, Sassetti R, McCarthy RJ, Narbone RF, Tuman KJ, Ivankovich AD. Autologous blood donation: hemodynamics in a high-risk patient population. Transfusion 1992;32:17–22.[Medline]
21. Kawamura M, Minamikawa O, Yokochi H, Maki S, Yasuda T, Mizukawa Y. Safe limit of hemodilution in cardiopulmonary bypass: comparative analysis between cyanotic and acyanotic congenital heart disease. Jpn J Surg 1980;10: 206–11.[Medline]
22. Moores WY. Oxygen delivery during cardiopulmonary bypass. In: Utley JR, Ashleigh EA, eds. Pathophysiology and techniques of cardiopulmonary bypass. Vol. I. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1982:1–11.
23. Giordano GF, Rivers SL, Chung GKT, et al. Autologous platelet-rich plasma in cardiac surgery: effect on intraoperative and postoperative transfusion requirements. Ann Thorac Surg 1988;46:416–9.[Abstract]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				N. Hibino, M. Nagashima, H. Sato, T. Hori, H. Ishitoya, and T. Tomino Preoperative Autologous Blood Donation for Cardiac Surgery in Children Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann, February 1, 2008; 16(1): 21 - 24. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				V. Sonzogni, G. Crupi, R. Poma, F. Annechino, F. Ferri, P. Filisetti, and P. Bellavita Erythropoietin therapy and preoperative autologous blood donation in children undergoing open heart surgery Br. J. Anaesth., September 1, 2001; 87(3): 429 - 434. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Masuda, Y. Moriyama, K. Hisatomi, R. Toda, S. Shimokawa, Y. Iguro, S.-i. Watanabe, H. Matsumoto, and A. Taira Preoperative autologous donation of blood for a simple cardiac anomaly: Analysis of children weighing under twenty kilograms J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., October 1, 2000; 120(4): 783 - 788. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Add to Personal Folders Download to citation manager Author home page(s): Munetaka Masuda Shigeki Morita Ryuji Tominaga Hisataka Yasui Permission Requests Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Masuda, M. Articles by Yasui, H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Masuda, M. Articles by Yasui, H.